Stephen Jay Gould

Introduction

American biologist and historian of science (1941–2002) Stephen Jay Gould (/g//uː//l//d/; September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science.American biologist and historian of science (1941–2002) Stephen Jay Gould (/g//uː//l//d/; September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science.

He was one of the most influential and widely read authors of popular science of his generation.He was one of the most influential and widely read authors of popular science of his generation.

Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

In 1996, Gould was hired as the Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University, after which he divided his time teaching between there and Harvard.In 1996, Gould was hired as the Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University, after which he divided his time teaching between there and Harvard.

Gould's most significant contribution to evolutionary biology was the theory of punctuated equilibrium developed with Niles Eldredge in 1972.Gould's most significant contribution to evolutionary biology was the theory of punctuated equilibrium developed with Niles Eldredge in 1972.

The theory proposes that most evolution is characterized by long periods of evolutionary stability, infrequently punctuated by swift periods of branching speciation.The theory proposes that most evolution is characterized by long periods of evolutionary stability, infrequently punctuated by swift periods of branching speciation.

The theory was contrasted against phyletic gradualism, the popular idea that evolutionary change is marked by a pattern of smooth and continuous change in the fossil record.The theory was contrasted against phyletic gradualism, the popular idea that evolutionary change is marked by a pattern of smooth and continuous change in the fossil record.

Most of Gould's empirical research was based on the land snail genera Poecilozonites and Cerion.Most of Gould's empirical research was based on the land snail genera Poecilozonites and Cerion.

He also made important contributions to evolutionary developmental biology, receiving broad professional recognition for his book Ontogeny and Phylogeny.He also made important contributions to evolutionary developmental biology, receiving broad professional recognition for his book Ontogeny and Phylogeny.

In evolutionary theory he opposed strict selectionism, sociobiology as applied to humans, and evolutionary psychology.In evolutionary theory he opposed strict selectionism, sociobiology as applied to humans, and evolutionary psychology.

He campaigned against creationism and proposed that science and religion should be considered two distinct fields (or "non overlapping magisteria") whose authorities do not overlap.He campaigned against creationism and proposed that science and religion should be considered two distinct fields (or "non overlapping magisteria") whose authorities do not overlap.

Gould was known by the general public mainly for his 300 popular essays in Natural History magazine, and his numerous books written for both the specialist and non specialist.Gould was known by the general public mainly for his 300 popular essays in Natural History magazine, and his numerous books written for both the specialist and non specialist.

In April 2000, the US Library of Congress named him a "Living Legend".In April 2000, the US Library of Congress named him a "Living Legend".

Biography

Stephen Jay Gould was born in Queens, New York, on September 10, 1941.Stephen Jay Gould was born in Queens, New York, on September 10, 1941.

His father Leonard was a court stenographer and a World War II veteran in the United States Navy.His father Leonard was a court stenographer and a World War II veteran in the United States Navy.

His mother Eleanor was an artist, whose parents were Jewish immigrants living and working in the city's Garment District.His mother Eleanor was an artist, whose parents were Jewish immigrants living and working in the city's Garment District.

Gould and his younger brother Peter were raised in Bayside, a middle class neighborhood in the northeastern section of Queens.Gould and his younger brother Peter were raised in Bayside, a middle class neighborhood in the northeastern section of Queens.

He attended P. S. 26 elementary school and graduated from Jamaica High School.He attended P. S. 26 elementary school and graduated from Jamaica High School.

When Gould was five years old his father took him to the Hall of Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History, where he first encountered Tyrannosaurus rex.When Gould was five years old his father took him to the Hall of Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History, where he first encountered Tyrannosaurus rex.

"I had no idea there were such things—I was awestruck," Gould once recalled."I had no idea there were such things—I was awestruck," Gould once recalled.

It was in that moment that he decided to become a paleontologist.It was in that moment that he decided to become a paleontologist.

Raised in a secular Jewish home, Gould did not formally practice religion and preferred to be called an agnostic.Raised in a secular Jewish home, Gould did not formally practice religion and preferred to be called an agnostic.

When asked directly if he was an agnostic in Skeptic magazine, he responded: If you absolutely forced me to bet on the existence of a conventional anthropomorphic deity, of course I 'd bet no.When asked directly if he was an agnostic in Skeptic magazine, he responded: If you absolutely forced me to bet on the existence of a conventional anthropomorphic deity, of course I 'd bet no.

But, basically, Huxley was right when he said that agnosticism is the only honorable position because we really cannot know.But, basically, Huxley was right when he said that agnosticism is the only honorable position because we really cannot know.

And that 's right.And that 's right.

I 'd be real surprised if there turned out to be a conventional God.I 'd be real surprised if there turned out to be a conventional God.

Though he "had been brought up by a Marxist father" he stated that his father's politics were "very different" from his own.Though he "had been brought up by a Marxist father" he stated that his father's politics were "very different" from his own.

In describing his own political views, he has said they "tend to the left of center."In describing his own political views, he has said they "tend to the left of center."

According to Gould the most influential political books he read were C. Wright Mills' The Power Elite and the political writings of Noam Chomsky.According to Gould the most influential political books he read were C. Wright Mills' The Power Elite and the political writings of Noam Chomsky.

When he attended the University of Leeds as a visiting undergraduate, he organized weekly demonstrations outside a Bradford dance hall which refused to admit black people.When he attended the University of Leeds as a visiting undergraduate, he organized weekly demonstrations outside a Bradford dance hall which refused to admit black people.

Gould continued these demonstrations until the policy was revoked.Gould continued these demonstrations until the policy was revoked.

Throughout his career and writings, he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms, especially what he saw as the pseudoscience used in the service of racism and sexism.Throughout his career and writings, he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms, especially what he saw as the pseudoscience used in the service of racism and sexism.

Interspersed throughout his scientific essays for Natural History magazine, Gould frequently referred to his non scientific interests and pastimes.Interspersed throughout his scientific essays for Natural History magazine, Gould frequently referred to his non scientific interests and pastimes.

As a boy he collected baseball cards and remained an avid New York Yankees fan throughout his life.As a boy he collected baseball cards and remained an avid New York Yankees fan throughout his life.

As an adult he was fond of science fiction movies, but often lamented their poor storytelling and presentation of science.As an adult he was fond of science fiction movies, but often lamented their poor storytelling and presentation of science.

His other interests included singing baritone in the Boston Cecilia, and he was a great aficionado of Gilbert and Sullivan operas.His other interests included singing baritone in the Boston Cecilia, and he was a great aficionado of Gilbert and Sullivan operas.

He collected rare antiquarian books, possessed an enthusiasm for architecture, and delighted in city walks.He collected rare antiquarian books, possessed an enthusiasm for architecture, and delighted in city walks.

He often traveled to Europe, and spoke French, German, Russian, and Italian.He often traveled to Europe, and spoke French, German, Russian, and Italian.

He sometimes alluded ruefully to his tendency to put on weight.He sometimes alluded ruefully to his tendency to put on weight.

Marriage and family

Gould married artist Deborah Lee on October 3, 1965.Gould married artist Deborah Lee on October 3, 1965.

His second marriage in 1995 was to artist and sculptor Rhonda Roland Shearer.His second marriage in 1995 was to artist and sculptor Rhonda Roland Shearer.

After a difficult two year recovery, Gould published a column for Discover magazine in 1985 titled "The Median Isn't the Message", which discusses his reaction to reading that "mesothelioma is incurable, with a median mortality of only eight months after discovery."After a difficult two year recovery, Gould published a column for Discover magazine in 1985 titled "The Median Isn't the Message", which discusses his reaction to reading that "mesothelioma is incurable, with a median mortality of only eight months after discovery."

In his essay, he describes the actual significance behind this fact, and his relief upon recognizing that statistical averages are useful abstractions, and by themselves do not encompass "our actual world of variation, shadings, and continua."In his essay, he describes the actual significance behind this fact, and his relief upon recognizing that statistical averages are useful abstractions, and by themselves do not encompass "our actual world of variation, shadings, and continua."

On August 5, 1998, Gould's testimony assisted in the successful lawsuit of HIV activist Jim Wakeford, who sued the Government of Canada for the right to cultivate, possess, and use marijuana for medical purposes.On August 5, 1998, Gould's testimony assisted in the successful lawsuit of HIV activist Jim Wakeford, who sued the Government of Canada for the right to cultivate, possess, and use marijuana for medical purposes.

Final illness and death

In February 2002, a lesion was found on Gould's chest radiograph, and oncologists diagnosed him with stage IV cancer.In February 2002, a lesion was found on Gould's chest radiograph, and oncologists diagnosed him with stage IV cancer.

Gould died 10 weeks later on May 20, 2002, from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung, an aggressive form of cancer which had already spread to his brain, liver, and spleen.Gould died 10 weeks later on May 20, 2002, from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung, an aggressive form of cancer which had already spread to his brain, liver, and spleen.

This cancer was unrelated to his previous bout of abdominal cancer in 1982.This cancer was unrelated to his previous bout of abdominal cancer in 1982.

He died in his home "in a bed set up in the library of his SoHo loft, surrounded by his wife Rhonda, his mother Eleanor, and the many books he loved."He died in his home "in a bed set up in the library of his SoHo loft, surrounded by his wife Rhonda, his mother Eleanor, and the many books he loved."

Scientific career

Gould began his higher education at Antioch College, graduating with a double major in geology and philosophy in 1963.Gould began his higher education at Antioch College, graduating with a double major in geology and philosophy in 1963.

During this time, he also studied at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom.During this time, he also studied at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom.

After completing graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell, he was immediately hired by Harvard University, where he worked until the end of his life (1967–2002).After completing graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell, he was immediately hired by Harvard University, where he worked until the end of his life (1967–2002).

In 1973, Harvard promoted him to professor of geology and curator of invertebrate paleontology at the institution's Museum of Comparative Zoology.In 1973, Harvard promoted him to professor of geology and curator of invertebrate paleontology at the institution's Museum of Comparative Zoology.

In 1983, he was awarded a fellowship at the American Association for the Advancement of Science, where he later served as president (1999–2001).In 1983, he was awarded a fellowship at the American Association for the Advancement of Science, where he later served as president (1999–2001).

The AAAS news release cited his "numerous contributions to both scientific progress and the public understanding of science."The AAAS news release cited his "numerous contributions to both scientific progress and the public understanding of science."

He also served as president of the Paleontological Society (1985–1986) and of the Society for the Study of Evolution (1990–1991).)He also served as president of the Paleontological Society (1985–1986) and of the Society for the Study of Evolution (1990–1991).)

Evolutionary developmental biology

Gould made significant contributions to evolutionary developmental biology, especially in his work Ontogeny and Phylogeny.Gould made significant contributions to evolutionary developmental biology, especially in his work Ontogeny and Phylogeny.

Selectionism and sociobiology

Gould was a champion of biological constraints, internal limitations upon developmental pathways, as well as other non selectionist forces in evolution.Gould was a champion of biological constraints, internal limitations upon developmental pathways, as well as other non selectionist forces in evolution.

Rather than direct adaptations, he considered many higher functions of the human brain to be the unintended side consequence of natural selection.Rather than direct adaptations, he considered many higher functions of the human brain to be the unintended side consequence of natural selection.

Gould believed this feature of human mentality undermines an essential premise of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.Gould believed this feature of human mentality undermines an essential premise of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.

Against Sociobiology

In 1975, Gould's Harvard colleague E. O. Wilson introduced his analysis of animal behavior (including human behavior) based on a sociobiological framework that suggested that many social behaviors have a strong evolutionary basis.In 1975, Gould's Harvard colleague E. O. Wilson introduced his analysis of animal behavior (including human behavior) based on a sociobiological framework that suggested that many social behaviors have a strong evolutionary basis.

In response, Gould, Richard Lewontin, and others from the Boston area wrote the subsequently well referenced letter to The New York Review of Books entitled, "Against 'Sociobiology'".In response, Gould, Richard Lewontin, and others from the Boston area wrote the subsequently well referenced letter to The New York Review of Books entitled, "Against 'Sociobiology'".

This open letter criticized Wilson's notion of a "deterministic view of human society and human action."This open letter criticized Wilson's notion of a "deterministic view of human society and human action."

But Gould did not rule out sociobiological explanations for many aspects of animal behavior, and later wrote: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruism—previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success.But Gould did not rule out sociobiological explanations for many aspects of animal behavior, and later wrote: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruism—previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success.

And here I wish it well.And here I wish it well.

For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply."For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply."

Cultural evolution

Gould's arguments against progress in evolutionary biology did not extend towards a notion of progress in general or notions of cultural evolution.Gould's arguments against progress in evolutionary biology did not extend towards a notion of progress in general or notions of cultural evolution.

In Full House, Gould compares two notions of progress against one another.In Full House, Gould compares two notions of progress against one another.

While the first concept of progress, evolutionary progress, is argued to be invalid for a number of biological considerations, Gould permits that evolution may operate in human cultural evolution through a Lamarckian mechanism.While the first concept of progress, evolutionary progress, is argued to be invalid for a number of biological considerations, Gould permits that evolution may operate in human cultural evolution through a Lamarckian mechanism.

Gould goes on to argue that the disappearance of the 0.400 batting average in baseball is paradoxically due to the inclusion of better players in the league, rather than players becoming worse over time.Gould goes on to argue that the disappearance of the 0.400 batting average in baseball is paradoxically due to the inclusion of better players in the league, rather than players becoming worse over time.

In his view such a process is likely reflective in a number of cultural phenomena including sports, the visual arts, and music where, unlike in biological systems, the realm of aesthetic possibilities is constrained by a "right wall" of human limits and aesthetic preferences.In his view such a process is likely reflective in a number of cultural phenomena including sports, the visual arts, and music where, unlike in biological systems, the realm of aesthetic possibilities is constrained by a "right wall" of human limits and aesthetic preferences.

Gould later goes on to state that his arguments for biological evolution should not be applied to cultural change lest they be employed by, "so called 'political correctness' as a doctrine that celebrates all indigenous practice, and therefore permits no distinctions, judgements, or analyses."Gould later goes on to state that his arguments for biological evolution should not be applied to cultural change lest they be employed by, "so called 'political correctness' as a doctrine that celebrates all indigenous practice, and therefore permits no distinctions, judgements, or analyses."

Around this time cladistics rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology.Around this time cladistics rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology.

Inexpensive but increasingly powerful personal computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics.Inexpensive but increasingly powerful personal computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics.

Around the same time the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and genetic features as well.Around the same time the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and genetic features as well.

Technical work on land snails

Most of Gould's empirical research pertained to land snails.Most of Gould's empirical research pertained to land snails.

He focused his early work on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites, while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion.He focused his early work on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites, while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion.

According to Gould "Cerion is the land snail of maximal diversity in form throughout the entire world.According to Gould "Cerion is the land snail of maximal diversity in form throughout the entire world.

There are 600 described species of this single genus.There are 600 described species of this single genus.

In fact, they 're not really species, they all interbreed, but the names exist to express a real phenomenon which is this incredible morphological diversity.In fact, they 're not really species, they all interbreed, but the names exist to express a real phenomenon which is this incredible morphological diversity.

Some are shaped like golf balls, some are shaped like pencils.Some are shaped like golf balls, some are shaped like pencils.

Now my main subject is the evolution of form, and the problem of how it is that you can get this diversity amid so little genetic difference, so far as we can tell, is a very interesting one.Now my main subject is the evolution of form, and the problem of how it is that you can get this diversity amid so little genetic difference, so far as we can tell, is a very interesting one.

And if we could solve this we 'd learn something general about the evolution of form."And if we could solve this we 'd learn something general about the evolution of form."

Given Cerion extensive geographic diversity, Gould later lamented that if Christopher Columbus had only catalogued a single Cerion it would have ended the scholarly debate about which island Columbus had first set foot on in America.Given Cerion extensive geographic diversity, Gould later lamented that if Christopher Columbus had only catalogued a single Cerion it would have ended the scholarly debate about which island Columbus had first set foot on in America.

Influence

Gould is one of the most frequently cited scientists in the field of evolutionary theory.Gould is one of the most frequently cited scientists in the field of evolutionary theory.

His 1979 "spandrels" paper has been cited more than 5,000 times.His 1979 "spandrels" paper has been cited more than 5,000 times.

In Paleobiology —the flagship journal of his own speciality —only Charles Darwin and George Gaylord Simpson have been cited more often.In Paleobiology —the flagship journal of his own speciality —only Charles Darwin and George Gaylord Simpson have been cited more often.

Gould was also a considerably respected historian of science.Gould was also a considerably respected historian of science.

Historian Ronald Numbers has been quoted as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I 've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn)."Historian Ronald Numbers has been quoted as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I 've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn)."

Gould's undergraduate course, Science B 16: History of the Earth and Life, was taught in a Harvard Science Center lecture hall with a 250 seat capacity.Gould's undergraduate course, Science B 16: History of the Earth and Life, was taught in a Harvard Science Center lecture hall with a 250 seat capacity.

Science B 16 was so oversubscribed that an annual lottery was held to see which students would be allowed to enroll in the course.Science B 16 was so oversubscribed that an annual lottery was held to see which students would be allowed to enroll in the course.

If a student was denied course enrollment three times, then their fourth entry into the lottery provided them with a guaranteed seat in the class.If a student was denied course enrollment three times, then their fourth entry into the lottery provided them with a guaranteed seat in the class.

The Structure of Evolutionary Theory

Shortly before his death, Gould published The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (2002), a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory.Shortly before his death, Gould published The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (2002), a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory.

In an interview for the Dutch TV series Of Beauty and Consolation Gould remarked, "In a couple of years I will be able to gather in one volume my view of how evolution works.In an interview for the Dutch TV series Of Beauty and Consolation Gould remarked, "In a couple of years I will be able to gather in one volume my view of how evolution works.

It is to me a great consolation because it represents the putting together of a lifetime of thinking into one source.It is to me a great consolation because it represents the putting together of a lifetime of thinking into one source.

That book will never be particularly widely read.That book will never be particularly widely read.

It 's going to be far too long, and it's only for a few thousand professionals—very different from my popular science writings—but it is of greater consolation to me because it is a chance to put into one place a whole way of thinking about evolution that I've struggled with all my life."It 's going to be far too long, and it's only for a few thousand professionals—very different from my popular science writings—but it is of greater consolation to me because it is a chance to put into one place a whole way of thinking about evolution that I've struggled with all my life."

The "Darwin Wars"

Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work and popular expositions of natural history, but a number of biologists felt his public presentations were out of step with mainstream evolutionary thinking.Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work and popular expositions of natural history, but a number of biologists felt his public presentations were out of step with mainstream evolutionary thinking.

The public debates between Gould's supporters and detractors have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators.The public debates between Gould's supporters and detractors have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators.

John Maynard Smith, the eminent British evolutionary biologist, was among Gould's strongest critics.John Maynard Smith, the eminent British evolutionary biologist, was among Gould's strongest critics.

Maynard Smith thought that Gould misjudged the vital role of adaptation in biology, and was critical of Gould's acceptance of species selection as a major component of biological evolution.Maynard Smith thought that Gould misjudged the vital role of adaptation in biology, and was critical of Gould's acceptance of species selection as a major component of biological evolution.

In a review of Daniel Dennett's book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory."In a review of Daniel Dennett's book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory."

But Maynard Smith was not consistently negative, writing in a review of The Panda's Thumb that "Stephen Gould is the best writer of popular science now active Often he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these."But Maynard Smith was not consistently negative, writing in a review of The Panda's Thumb that "Stephen Gould is the best writer of popular science now active Often he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these."

Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology.Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology.

Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works.Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works.

The conflicts between Richard Dawkins and Gould were popularized by philosopher Kim Sterelny in his 2001 book Dawkins vs. Gould.The conflicts between Richard Dawkins and Gould were popularized by philosopher Kim Sterelny in his 2001 book Dawkins vs. Gould.

Sterelny documents their disagreements over theoretical issues, including the prominence of gene selection in evolution.Sterelny documents their disagreements over theoretical issues, including the prominence of gene selection in evolution.

Dawkins argues that natural selection is best understood as competition among genes (or replicators), while Gould advocated multi level selection, which includes selection amongst genes, nucleic acid sequences, cell lineages, organisms, demes, species, and clades.Dawkins argues that natural selection is best understood as competition among genes (or replicators), while Gould advocated multi level selection, which includes selection amongst genes, nucleic acid sequences, cell lineages, organisms, demes, species, and clades.

He also devoted entire chapters to critiquing Gould's account of evolution in his books The Blind Watchmaker and Unweaving the Rainbow, as did Daniel Dennett in his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea.He also devoted entire chapters to critiquing Gould's account of evolution in his books The Blind Watchmaker and Unweaving the Rainbow, as did Daniel Dennett in his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea.

Other biologists contemporary to Gould went further, as in the case of Robert Trivers who classified it as "intellectual fraud".Other biologists contemporary to Gould went further, as in the case of Robert Trivers who classified it as "intellectual fraud".

Cambrian fauna

In his book Wonderful Life (1989) Gould famously described the Cambrian fauna of the Burgess Shale, emphasizing their bizarre anatomical designs, their sudden appearance, and the role chance played in determining which members survived.In his book Wonderful Life (1989) Gould famously described the Cambrian fauna of the Burgess Shale, emphasizing their bizarre anatomical designs, their sudden appearance, and the role chance played in determining which members survived.

He used the Cambrian fauna as an example of the role contingency has in shaping the broader pattern of evolution.He used the Cambrian fauna as an example of the role contingency has in shaping the broader pattern of evolution.

His view of contingency was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible of Creation.His view of contingency was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible of Creation.

Conway Morris stressed members of the Cambrian fauna that resemble modern taxa.Conway Morris stressed members of the Cambrian fauna that resemble modern taxa.

He also argued that convergent evolution has a tendency to produce "similarities of organization" and that the forms of life are restricted and channelled.He also argued that convergent evolution has a tendency to produce "similarities of organization" and that the forms of life are restricted and channelled.

In his book Life's Solution (2003) Conway Morris argued that the appearance of human like animals is also likely.In his book Life's Solution (2003) Conway Morris argued that the appearance of human like animals is also likely.

Paleontologist Richard Fortey noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life, Conway Morris shared a similar thesis to Gould's, but after Wonderful Life Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more deterministic position on the history of life.Paleontologist Richard Fortey noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life, Conway Morris shared a similar thesis to Gould's, but after Wonderful Life Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more deterministic position on the history of life.

Paleontologists Derek Briggs and Richard Fortey have also argued that much of the Cambrian fauna may be regarded as stem groups of living taxa, though this is still a subject of intense research and debate, and the relationship of many Cambrian taxa to modern phyla has not been established in the eyes of many palaeontologists.Paleontologists Derek Briggs and Richard Fortey have also argued that much of the Cambrian fauna may be regarded as stem groups of living taxa, though this is still a subject of intense research and debate, and the relationship of many Cambrian taxa to modern phyla has not been established in the eyes of many palaeontologists.

Richard Dawkins disagrees with the view that new phyla suddenly appeared in the Cambrian, arguing that for a new phylum "to spring into existence, what actually has to happen on the ground is that a child is born which suddenly, out of the blue, is as different from its parents as a snail is from an earthworm.Richard Dawkins disagrees with the view that new phyla suddenly appeared in the Cambrian, arguing that for a new phylum "to spring into existence, what actually has to happen on the ground is that a child is born which suddenly, out of the blue, is as different from its parents as a snail is from an earthworm.

No zoologist who thinks through the implications, not even the most ardent saltationist, has ever supported any such notion."No zoologist who thinks through the implications, not even the most ardent saltationist, has ever supported any such notion."

In the Structure of Evolutionary Theory Gould stresses the difference between phyletic splitting and large anatomical transitions, noting that the two events may be separated by millions of years.In the Structure of Evolutionary Theory Gould stresses the difference between phyletic splitting and large anatomical transitions, noting that the two events may be separated by millions of years.

Gould argues that no paleontologist regards the Cambrian explosion "as a genealogical event— that is as the actual time of initial splitting", but rather it "marks an anatomical transition in the overt phenotypes of bilaterian organisms."Gould argues that no paleontologist regards the Cambrian explosion "as a genealogical event— that is as the actual time of initial splitting", but rather it "marks an anatomical transition in the overt phenotypes of bilaterian organisms."

Opposition to sociobiology and evolutionary psychology

Gould also had a long running public feud with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists concerning the disciplines of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology, both of which Gould and Lewontin opposed, but which Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, and Steven Pinker advocated.Gould also had a long running public feud with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists concerning the disciplines of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology, both of which Gould and Lewontin opposed, but which Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, and Steven Pinker advocated.

These debates reached their climax in the 1970s, and included strong opposition from groups such as the Sociobiology Study Group and Science for the People.These debates reached their climax in the 1970s, and included strong opposition from groups such as the Sociobiology Study Group and Science for the People.

Pinker accuses Gould, Lewontin, and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science.Pinker accuses Gould, Lewontin, and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science.

Gould stated that he made "no attribution of motive in Wilson's or anyone else's case" but cautioned that all human beings are influenced, especially unconsciously, by our personal expectations and biases.Gould stated that he made "no attribution of motive in Wilson's or anyone else's case" but cautioned that all human beings are influenced, especially unconsciously, by our personal expectations and biases.

He wrote: I grew up in a family with a tradition of participation in campaigns for social justice, and I was active, as a student, in the civil rights movement at a time of great excitement and success in the early 1960s.He wrote: I grew up in a family with a tradition of participation in campaigns for social justice, and I was active, as a student, in the civil rights movement at a time of great excitement and success in the early 1960s.

Scholars are often wary of citing such commitments.Scholars are often wary of citing such commitments.

[but] it is dangerous for a scholar even to imagine that he might attain complete neutrality, for then one stops being vigilant about personal preferences and their influences —and then one truly falls victim to the dictates of prejudice.[but] it is dangerous for a scholar even to imagine that he might attain complete neutrality, for then one stops being vigilant about personal preferences and their influences —and then one truly falls victim to the dictates of prejudice.

Objectivity must be operationally defined as fair treatment of data, not absence of preference.Objectivity must be operationally defined as fair treatment of data, not absence of preference.

Gould's primary criticism held that human sociobiological explanations lacked evidential support, and argued that adaptive behaviors are frequently assumed to be genetic for no other reason than their supposed universality, or their adaptive nature.Gould's primary criticism held that human sociobiological explanations lacked evidential support, and argued that adaptive behaviors are frequently assumed to be genetic for no other reason than their supposed universality, or their adaptive nature.

Gould emphasized that adaptive behaviors can be passed on through culture as well, and either hypothesis is equally plausible.Gould emphasized that adaptive behaviors can be passed on through culture as well, and either hypothesis is equally plausible.

Gould did not deny the relevance of biology to human nature, but reframed the debate as "biological potentiality vs. biological determinism."Gould did not deny the relevance of biology to human nature, but reframed the debate as "biological potentiality vs. biological determinism."

Gould stated that the human brain allows for a wide range of behaviors.Gould stated that the human brain allows for a wide range of behaviors.

Its flexibility " permits us to be aggressive or peaceful, dominant or submissive, spiteful or generous Violence, sexism, and general nastiness are biological since they represent one subset of a possible range of behaviors.Its flexibility " permits us to be aggressive or peaceful, dominant or submissive, spiteful or generous Violence, sexism, and general nastiness are biological since they represent one subset of a possible range of behaviors.

But peacefulness, equality, and kindness are just as biological —and we may see their influence increase if we can create social structures that permit them to flourish."But peacefulness, equality, and kindness are just as biological —and we may see their influence increase if we can create social structures that permit them to flourish."

and extensive criticism.

Gould investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry, as well as the history of psychological testing.Gould investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry, as well as the history of psychological testing.

Gould wrote that both theories developed from an unfounded belief in biological determinism, the view that "social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, in this sense, is an accurate reflection of biology."Gould wrote that both theories developed from an unfounded belief in biological determinism, the view that "social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, in this sense, is an accurate reflection of biology."

The book was reprinted in 1996 with the addition of a new foreword and a critical review of The Bell Curve.The book was reprinted in 1996 with the addition of a new foreword and a critical review of The Bell Curve.

In 2011, a study conducted by six anthropologists criticized Gould's claim that Samuel Morton unconsciously manipulated his skull measurements, arguing that his analysis of Morton was influenced by his opposition to racism.In 2011, a study conducted by six anthropologists criticized Gould's claim that Samuel Morton unconsciously manipulated his skull measurements, arguing that his analysis of Morton was influenced by his opposition to racism.

The group's paper was reviewed in an editorial in the journal Nature, which pointed out that the paper's authors might have been influenced by their own motivations, recommending a degree of caution, stating "the critique leaves the majority of Gould's work unscathed," and noted that "because they couldn't measure all the skulls, they do not know whether the average cranial capacities that Morton reported represent his sample accurately.The group's paper was reviewed in an editorial in the journal Nature, which pointed out that the paper's authors might have been influenced by their own motivations, recommending a degree of caution, stating "the critique leaves the majority of Gould's work unscathed," and noted that "because they couldn't measure all the skulls, they do not know whether the average cranial capacities that Morton reported represent his sample accurately.

The journal stated that Gould's opposition to racism may have biased his interpretation of Morton's data, but also noted that "Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations.The journal stated that Gould's opposition to racism may have biased his interpretation of Morton's data, but also noted that "Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations.

Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania, to whom Morton donated his collection of skulls, and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias and did not accept Gould's theory " that the scientific method is inevitably tainted by bias."Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania, to whom Morton donated his collection of skulls, and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias and did not accept Gould's theory " that the scientific method is inevitably tainted by bias."

In 2015, biologists and philosophers Jonathan Kaplan, Massimo Pigliucci, and Joshua Banta published an article arguing that no meaningful conclusions could be drawn from Morton's data.In 2015, biologists and philosophers Jonathan Kaplan, Massimo Pigliucci, and Joshua Banta published an article arguing that no meaningful conclusions could be drawn from Morton's data.

They agreed with Gould, and disagreed with the 2011 study, insofar as Morton's study was seriously flawed, but they agreed with the 2011 study insofar as Gould's analysis was in many ways not better than Morton's.They agreed with Gould, and disagreed with the 2011 study, insofar as Morton's study was seriously flawed, but they agreed with the 2011 study insofar as Gould's analysis was in many ways not better than Morton's.

University of Pennsylvania anthropology doctoral student Paul Wolff Mitchell published an analysis of Morton's original, unpublished data, which neither Gould nor subsequent commentators had directly addressed.University of Pennsylvania anthropology doctoral student Paul Wolff Mitchell published an analysis of Morton's original, unpublished data, which neither Gould nor subsequent commentators had directly addressed.

Mitchell concluded that Gould's specific argument about Morton's unconscious bias in measurement is not supported, but that it was true, as Gould had claimed, that Morton's racial biases influenced how he reported and interpreted his measurements, arguing that Morton's interpretation of his data was arbitrary and tendentious: Morton investigated averages and ignored variations in skull size so large that there was significant overlap.Mitchell concluded that Gould's specific argument about Morton's unconscious bias in measurement is not supported, but that it was true, as Gould had claimed, that Morton's racial biases influenced how he reported and interpreted his measurements, arguing that Morton's interpretation of his data was arbitrary and tendentious: Morton investigated averages and ignored variations in skull size so large that there was significant overlap.

A contemporary of Morton, Friedrich Tiedemann, had collected almost identical skull data and drawn conclusions opposite to Morton's on the basis of this overlap, arguing strongly against any conception of a racial hierarchy.A contemporary of Morton, Friedrich Tiedemann, had collected almost identical skull data and drawn conclusions opposite to Morton's on the basis of this overlap, arguing strongly against any conception of a racial hierarchy.

Non-overlapping magisteria

In his book Rocks of Ages (1999), Gould put forward what he described as "a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to the supposed conflict between science and religion."In his book Rocks of Ages (1999), Gould put forward what he described as "a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to the supposed conflict between science and religion."

He defines the term magisterium as "a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution."He defines the term magisterium as "a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution."

Dawkins also opposes the idea that religion has anything meaningful to say about ethics and values, and therefore has no authority to claim a magisterium of its own.Dawkins also opposes the idea that religion has anything meaningful to say about ethics and values, and therefore has no authority to claim a magisterium of its own.

Similarly, humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that Gould was wrong to posit that science has nothing to say about questions of ethics.Similarly, humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that Gould was wrong to posit that science has nothing to say about questions of ethics.

In fact, Kurtz claims that science is a much better method than religion for determining moral principles.In fact, Kurtz claims that science is a much better method than religion for determining moral principles.

Articles

Gould's publications were numerous.Gould's publications were numerous.

One review of his publications between 1965 and 2000 noted 479 peer reviewed papers, 22 books, 300 essays, and 101 "major" book reviews.One review of his publications between 1965 and 2000 noted 479 peer reviewed papers, 22 books, 300 essays, and 101 "major" book reviews.